Albright, R., R. Hirschi, R. Vanbianchi, and C. Vita. 1980. Coastal zone atlas of Washington. Land cover/land use narratives, Vol. I. Washington State Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA. 447 pp. A document containing general information about characteristics and functions of fresh and seawater coastal zones. Specific information for Bellingham Bay is not provided.

 

Anderson, K., D. W. Jamison, M. Kirk, and M. Ruef, eds. 1977. Whatcom County, Vol. 1. Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA. (Coastal Zone Atlas of Washington) 46 pp. Eelgrass was mapped on the shore west of Mt. Baker Plywood and at the mouth of the rerouted Squalicum Creek (destroyed to accommodate expansion of Squalicum Harbor). Eelgrass was not noted at Post Point, the shore between Uniflight and Boulevard Park, nor the northern intertidal delta of the Nooksack River. Marine waters north of Post Point, including Squalicum Harbor and the area near the Cement Plant were mapped as important winter areas for greater scaup and buffleheads. The Nooksack delta was mapped as an important winter area for whistling swans, northern bald eagles, buffleheads, and greater scaup. American widgeons, pintails, and mallards used the delta during fall and winter,and the dunlin used the area from spring through winter.

 

Armstrong, J. W., and A. E. Copping, eds. 1990. Status and management of Puget Sound's biological resources. EPA 910/9-90-001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seattle, WA.

 

Armstrong, J. W., R. M. Thom, and K. K. Chew. 1980. Impact of a combined sewer overflow on the abundance, distribution and community structure of subtidal benthos. Marine Environmental Research:3-23.

 

Baker, E. T., J. D. Cline, R. A. Freely, and J. Quan. 1978. Seasonal distribution, trajectory studies, and sorption characteristics of suspended particulate matter in the northern Puget Sound region. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. Seattle, WA. (Interagency, Energy/Environment R and D Report No. EPA-600/7-78-126). 140 pp.

 

Barnes, C. A., and C. C. Ebbesmeyer. 1978. Some aspects of Puget Sound's circulation and water properties. Pages 331 in B. Kjerfve, ed. Estuarine transport processes. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, South Carolina.

 

Battelle. 1986. Reconnaissance survey of eight bays in Puget Sound, Vol. Vols 1 and 2. Battelle, Pacific Northwest Division, Marine Research Laboratory. Sequim, WA. 230 pp.

Bauer, W. 1974. The drift sectors of Whatcom County marine shores: their shoreforms and geo-hyraulic status. Whatcom County Planning Commission. Whatcom County, Washington. 74 pp. Shorelines in eastern Bellingham Bay are mapped as industrialized for the area from Squalicum Waterway to Padden Creek. Rocky shores dominant from Padden Creek to Clark Point. Erosional bluffs situated between the mouth of the Nooksack River and Squalicum Waterway are interspersed with accretion shores at Little Squalicum Beach, near Smith Garden, and near Marietta. Net high tide shore drift separates at the cement plant dock moving northwest towards the Nooksack River and southeast towards Bellingham.

 

Becker, D. S., R. Sonnerup, and J. J. Greene. 1989. Bellingham Bay action program: initial data summaries and problem identification. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10. Seattle, WA 124 pp. Nooksack River discharge peaks twice a year, once during the winter period of maximum precipation (October to April) and during early summer during snow melt. Within the bay, intertidal areas occupy about 42 km2 and about 1.4 km2 have been converted to upland uses. Bottom salinities range from 29 to 31 ppt, similar to Rosario Strait, and tend to be stable throughout the year. Bottom currents are slow between 0.1 and 0.2 m/sec. Water characteristics within the upper 10 meters are variable with depth and time, responding to changes in air temperature and freshwater input. A 2 meter deep brackish layer often is found in the bay. Surface salinities range from 20 to 26 ppt, but can be as low as 20 ppt. The water column tends to be isothermal in late fall and early spring, but may be stratified during other seasons. Surface currents are slow between 0.2 to 0.3 m/sec. The Nooksack River watershed is about 1,500 km2 and the river is the primary source of bay sediment with an average annual sediment discharge of 650,000 m3. Sediment sources are natural from glacial scour, and anthropogenic from agricultural and logging activities. During late spring and early summer, juvenile salmon leave streams and migrate within one kilometer of the bay shoreline. Economically important marine fish include Pacific herring, Pacific cod, rockfish, lingcod, rock sole, English sole, and Starry flounder. Dungeness crab occur throughout the bay. Other shellfish include Pacific oysters, littleneck clams, Manila clams, horse clams, and butter clams. Marine mammal occurrences include harbor seal, harbor porpoise, orca, gray whale, California sea lion, northern sea lion, Dall porpoise, and minke whale. Sediment total volitile solids (TVS) indicate amount of organic material. In1983, sediment TVS values ranged from 1.2 to 17. % with the highest values observed near Whatcom Creek and lowest values in areas with coarse grained sediments or increasing proximity to the Nooksack River delta. Analysis of mercury bioaccumulation in fish and shellfish tissues found values between 0.04 mg/kg WW for intertidal organisms to 0.28 mg/kg WW for mussels. The FDA mercury maximum is 1 ppm. A 1974 study found upt to 2.6 mg/kg WW in benthic macroinvertebrates with highest concentrations located near Squalicum Waterway and the former Squalicum Waterway marina.

 

Studies of benthic macroinvertebrates prior to 1979 include works by U.S. Department of the Interior (1967), CH2M Hill (1976), Nelson et al (1974), and Webber (1978). Broad et al. (1983) and CH2M Hill (1984) analyzed benthic macroinvertebrates at 31 total stations. When compared with reference stations, no significant depressions of polychaetes were found, 2 of 31 stations showed significant mollusc depressions, and 17 of 31 stations showed signicant depressions for amphipods and other crustaceans. Depression foci were located near the Post Point outfall, Whatcom waterway, and 1 km northwest of Boulevard Park. Areas ranked as problem areas are located near the Post Point outfall, inner and outer Whatcom Waterway, and an area about 1 km northwest of Boulevard Park.

 

Bortelson, G. C., M. J. Chrzastowski, and A. K. Helgerson. 1980. Historical changes of shoreline and wetland at eleven major deltas in the Puget Sound region, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey. Denver, CO. (Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-617). A collection of maps showing historical and current locations of shoreline and wetlands. Available for review at the Suzzallo Library, University of Washington.

 

Bortleson, G. C., M. J. Chrzastowski, and A. K. Helgerson. 1980. Historical changes of shoreline and wetland at eleven major deltas in the Puget Sound region, Washington. U.S. Geological Survey, Hydraulic Investigations Atlas HA-617. Washington, D.C.

 

Bothner, M. H., and R. Carpenter. 1974. The rate of mercury loss from contaminated estuarine sediments in Bellingham Bay, Washington. First annual NSF trace contaminants conference, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, No. conf-730802, pp. 198-210. . An estimated 10-20 pounds of mercury were discharged daily from a chlor-alkali plant at the head of Bellingham Bay, in northern Puget Sound, between 1965 and 1970. Sediment cores collected periodically from 1970 to 1973, show decreasing levels of mercury. Mechanisms of mercury removal are discussed.

 

Boule, M. E., N. Olmsted, and T. Miller. 1983. Inventory of wetland resources and evaluation of wetland management in western Washington. Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 102 pp.

 

Brewer, L. W. 1980. Waterfowl habitat inventory, Project No. W-27-R-28. Washington Department of Game. Olympia, WA.

 

British Columbia / Washington Marine Science Panel. 1994. The shared marine waters of British Columbia and Washington. Province of British Columbia and State of Washington in association with the School of Oceanography, University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 119 pp.

 

Brittel, J., J. David, J. M. Brown, R. L. Eaton, and C. A. Starika. 1975. Marine shoreline fauna of Washington: a status survey, Vol. I and II, Appendix I and J. Washington State Department of Game and Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA.

 

Broad, A. C., A. B. Benedict, and J. R. Mayer. 1984. Infaunal macrobenthos and sediment characteristics in Bellingham and Samish bays. Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA. (Final report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) 107 pp. The report provides a synopsis of physical characteristics of Bellingham Bay and integrates previous benthic studies (CH2M Hill, Smith, Webber) with 1983 research.

 

Within the top 10 m, salinity and temperature in Bellingham Bay vary with depth and time. A 2 m thick brackish layer (salinity y < 20 o /oo) forms in the area north of Point Frances and Post Point. Winds and tides cause mixing. The bay is isothermal in late fall and early spring, experiences a thermal inversion in winter, and is thermally stratified in summer for days to weeks. Oxygen concentration in bottom water decreases during periods of thermal stratification. Bottom water in the inner bay flows north with flood tides and south with ebbs. During periods of stratification, bottom water from the inner bay can flow in a clockwise eddy rather than flowing south past Post Point. Major sediment types include bay muds, delta platform sands, and lag gravels. Much of the bay's sediment originates from streams, principally the Nooksack River, and from unconsolidated bluffs. The inner harbor also contains anaerobic sludge mixed with wood chips and fibers. In 1979, after the Georgia Pacific effluent lagoon began operation, about 30% more solids were discharged than before; however, these solids mostly consisted of bacteria rather than wood fibers. From 1965 to 1973, between 10 and 20 tons of mercury were discharged to the bay from the chlor-alkali plant. From 1974 to 1979, mercury concentration in sediments of Whatcom Waterway decreased to about 10% to 50% of initial levels in response to half-life (1.3 years) breakdown. From Nelson's study (1974), concentrations of mercury in animal tissue were thought, in part, to be due to more rapid mercury methylatation the presence of well-oxygenated sediments of the marina than the anoxic sediments of the chlor-alkali lagoon. Sediments dredged from Squalicum, I & J, and Whatcom waterways were probably from the Nooksack River with an annual estimated sediment discharge of 688,500 cubic meters. Prior to the 1984 study, a total of 241 macroinvertebrates were recorded from cores, grabs, or trawls by CH2M Hill, Smith, and Webber. Polychaetes, bivalves, crustaceans, and echinoderms dominated. Diversity and abundance of macrobenthos was the same before and after the Post Point sewage treatment plant came on line. Historical commercial and recreational harvests of invertebrates include Dungeness crab, Pacific oysters, various clams (littleneck, Manila, horse, soft-shell, and cockles), squid, octopus, and sea cucumbers. Shrimps Crangon and Pandalus are numerous in the subtidal.

 

Results from the 1984 study of 44 VanVeen samples identify sediment size, color, TVS, presence of H2S, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen. The 1984 study found lower organic content in sediments than studies from 1974 and 1975. A total of 169+ species were identified in four regions including the Nooksack River to Squalicum Harbor, inner harbor, inner bay, and outer bay. The delta had the lowest diversity but the highest number of individuals and biomass. The number of species and organisms decreased with depth, silt content, and organic content. The number of organims per unit area from the 1984 study were greater than previous studies. This was thought to be a response to different sampling methods and water quality management efforts Bellingham and Samish bays had different infauna. Appendixes include faunal informational by taxon and station.

 

Buchanan, K. D. 1985. The general purpose herring fishery 1957-1983. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (Technical report No.85) 72 pp.

 

Burnett, M. 1992. Internship with the Department of Ecology. Internship report. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA. The Department of Ecology identified Whatcom Waterway and Post Point sewage outfall as locations of major contamination within Bellingham Bay. Iowa Street drainage of Whatcom Creek has the most industrialized outfall in the City of Bellingham. Based on risk to human health, Ecology has given top priority cleanup status to Whatcom Waterway, Little Squalicum Creek, and Boulevard Park. Although a human health threat exists at each location, it is not severe enough to require immediate clean up. Log rafting causes increased biological oxygen demand and decreased dissolved oxygen. Anaerobic decomposition of wood can emit hydrogen sulfide gas and retene, a polyaromatic hydrocarbon. The toxicity of bark leachate increases with increasing salinity with leachates in 20 ppt seawater being three times more toxic than in freshwater. Tidal flushing can lessen the effects of leachate. Epibenthic and infaunal communities can be adversely affected. Log rafting at the foot of Cornwall Avenue may contribute to low biomass and species diversity.

 

Callaway, R. J., J. J. Vlastelicica, and G. R. Ditsworth. 1963. Puget Sound oceanographic field studies data report: Everett, Bellingham, and Port Angeles, 1962 - 1963. Unpublished data on file at the Environmental Protection Agency, Corvalis Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvalis, OR. .

 

Canning, D. J., and M. Stevens. 1989. Wetlands of Washington: a resource characterization, Environment 2010 project. Washington Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 45 pp.

 

Cardwell, R. D., M. I. Carr, and E. W. Sanborn. 1980. Water quality and flushing of five Puget Sound marinas, Technical report No.56. Washington State Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA 77 pp. To define marina flushing standards, five marinas were investigated including Squalicum Harbor. Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll a, and flushing indices were assessed together with water quality of source water and 30 years of climatic data. Marina surface water temperature (within 1 meter) can be predicted based on 7-day average air temperatures. Average water temperature in Squalicum Harbor (15 oC) was high because of minimal flushing of both the marina and bay. Daylight DO content was often higher than source waters due to plankton blooms and attendant oxygen production. During late summer, subsurface (2.1 to 3.1 meters) night levels of oxygen feel below state standards.

 

Because marinas emulate protected embayments, certain species of juvenile salmon and baitfish are seasonal visitors. Included are surf smelt, Pacific sand lance, and chinook salmon juveniles. Preferring shore edges, juvenile coho, chum, and pink salmon are not as frequently observed in marinas. Trawls in Birch Bay and Lummi Bay, naturally occurring protected embayments, found comparatively high counts of Pacific herring, surf smelt, Pacific sand lance, and juvenile chinook, coho, chum, and pink salmon. These embayments contained substrates of eelgrass and sand or mud. Trawls in other locations with moderate to high exposure had rock/kelp, cobble, or gravel substrates. Fewer individuals of all enumerated fish species were encountered. Contains figures and appendices.

 

CH2M. 1970. Pollution control for Bellingham Bay: sewerage facilities design study. City of Bellingham. Bellingham, WA. The sewage treatment plant formerly located at Maritime Heritage Park was constructed in 1947. Between 1947 and 1960, 4.5 mgd sewage was given primary treatment then piped into Bellingham Bay at 15 feet of water. In 1960, capacity was increased to 11 mgd and chlorination was added. by 1970,only the north and central drainage areas were treated. Untreated sewage from the south drainage entered Bellingham Bay near Post Point. Sewage from the former Saint Joseph's Hospital entered the bay near the present day Georgia Pacific warehouse at the foot of Cornwall Avenue. Industrial waste from food processors directly entered the bay. About 24 mgd of industrial effluent entered Whatcom Waterway from Georgia Pacific processes. Sites considered for a new domestic sewage treatment plant included Little Squalicum Creek ravine, the 1970 existing site, and Post Point. Although engineering plans included aethetic considerations for each site, no mention was made of wildlife or habitat.

 

CH2M Hill. 1976. Final report of Bellingham Bay water quality monitoring program. Prepared for City of Bellingham and Georgia-Pacific Corporation. CH2M Hill. Bellevue, WA.

 

CH2M Hill. 1984. Application for variance from secondary treatment requirements section 301(h) Clean Water Act - City of Bellingham, WA. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Seattle, WA. CH2M Hill, Bellevue, WA. .

 

CH2M Hill, I. 1976. Bellingham Bay monitoring program. City of Bellingham and Georgia Pacific Corporation. Bellingham, WA 63 pp.

 

City of Bellingham. 1985. Application for variance from secondary treatment requirements - Section 301 (h) Clean Water Act. Submitted to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. .

 

Cochrane, M. 1990. Nooksack delta sedimentation investigation. Department of Fisheries, Lummi Indian Business Council. Bellingham, WA. (Lummi fisheries technical report No. 91-1).

 

Collias, E. E. 1970. Index to physical and chemical oceanographic data on Puget Sound and its approaches, 1932 - 1966. Department of Oceanography, University of Washington. Seattle, WA. (Special Report No. 43).

 

Collias, E. E. 1971. Currents in Bellingham Bay for the period 17 April to 28 May 1963. Cornell, Howland, Hayes, and Merrifield Company. Bellevue, WA. (Final report) 10 pp.

 

Collias, E. E., and S. I. Andreeva. 1977. Puget Sound marine environment: an annotated bibliography. Washington Sea Grant, University of Washington Press. Seattle, WA 392 pp. At total of 1,980 annotated references, available through December 1976, pertain to Puget Sound. References are arranged alpabetically, and are cross-referenced by topic and geographical region. References include computer data bases, information available at state university libraries, and the departments of fisheries, ecology, and natural resources.

 

Collias, E. E., and C. A. Barnes. 1962. An oceanographic survey of the Bellingham - Samish bay system. Department of Oceanography, University of Washington. Seattle, WA. (Special Report No. 32) 132 pp.

 

Collias, E. E., C. A. Barnes, C. B. Murty, and D. V. Hansen. 1966. An oceanographic survey of the Bellingham - Samish Bay system. Volume II: analyses of data. University of Washington, Department of Oceanography. Seattle, WA. (Special report No. 32) 142 pp.

 

Cooper, J. W. 1987. An overview of esturarine habitat mitigation projects in Washington state. Northwest Environmental Journal:112-127.

 

Copping, A. 1994. Shared waters: the vulnerable Inland Sea of British Columbia and Washington. Washington Sea Grant Program, University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 23 pp.

 

Cubbage, J. 1991. Bioaccumulation of contaminants in crabs and clams in Bellingham Bay. Washington State Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 29 pp. Muscle from Dungeness crab (eight sites), and whole body littleneck and Manila clams (four sites) were tested for mercury, lead, arsenic, cadmium, PCBs, and other organochlorine compounds. Clams were also tested for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. No pesticides or PCBs were found in clam or crab tissues. Low concentrations of PAHs were found in clams. Mercury was not detected in clam tissue but was detected in low concentrations of crab tissue. A slight correlation was found between muscle mercury concentrations and and proximity to Whatcom waterway. Cadmium, arensic, lead were also detected in clam and crab tissues, but concentrations were similar to Puget Sound reference areas. Highest arsensic levels came from shellfish on the west side of the bay. A concurrent study by the Department of Natural Resources found similar mercury, arsenic and lead concentrations; however, cadmium, DDE and chlordane levels were higher than DOE results. Concentrations of mercury in Dungeness crab from Bellingham Bay have declined in the past 15 years, probably in response to decreased mercury discharge. In 1974, crab from Post Point had 0.23 ppm (wet weight) concentrations, whereas concentrations in the present study found 0.08 to 0.11 ppm (wet weight).

 

Day, D. 1987. Changes in the natural mortality rate of the southeast Strait of Georgia sac-roe herring stock, 1976-1985. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (Technical Report No. 98) 34 pp.

 

Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Washington. 1992. Coastal sensitive areas mapping project. Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA. (San Juan Islands booklet) 38 pp. The shoreline of Bellingham Bay is mappped as marsh at the Nooksack River delta, wave cut platform between the Nooksack River and Little Squalicum Creek, gravel and cobble at Little Squalicum Beach, and rocky shore or seawall from Squalicum Creek south to Clark Point. The western shoreline is mapped as gravel and cobble. Bird colonies are identified at Squalicum Harbor and off Boulevard Park. Marine mammal sightings are noted for Portage Bay and east of Brandt Point. Brandt Point is noted as a marine mammal haul out site. The north shore of Bellingham Bay, including the Nooksack River delta, is identified as a set net fishing area. Subtidal waters of Bellingham Bay are considered as a Dungeness crab area. Eastern Portage Bay is identified as an area for Pacific oysters and the area surrounding Portage Island is noted as hardshell clam habitat.

 

Department of Natural Resources. 1972. Washington Marine Atlas, Vol. 1: North Inland Waters. Washington Department of Natural Resources. Olympia, WA. plate 12: waterfowl areas and eelgrass meadows

 

Department of Natural Resources. 1977. Washington marine atlas. Washington Department of Natural Resources. Olympia, WA 4 vols. Contains mapped information about recreational fishing and shellfish, oceanography, and waterfowl areas.

 

Dethier, M. N. 1990. A marine and estuarine habitat classification system for Washington State. Washington Natural Heritage Program, Department of Natural Resources. Olympia, WA 56 pp. Portions of Bellingham Bay were field surveyed and used to illustrate four habitats. Intertidal habitats include partially enclosed sand (mesohaline) and partially enclosed mixed fine. There is not a direct correlation between these habitats and those identified in the Preassessment screening rule (WAC 173-183). Subtidal habitats include partially enclosed mud (shallow and deep). There is a direct correlation between these classifications and those identified in the Preassessment screening rule (WAC 173-183).

 

Dinnel, P. A., D. A. Armstrong, and R. R. Lauth. 1988. Invertebrate resource assessments in and around proposed dredged materials disposal sites in Puget Sound. University of Washington, School of Fisheries. Seattle, WA. (Contribution No. 747) 4 pp.

Dinnel, P. A., D. A. Armstrong, R. R. Lauth, and K. Larsen. 1988. Puget Sound dredged disposal analysis (PSDDA) dipsoal site investigations: Phase II trawl studies in north and south Puget Sound. Invertebrate resource assessments. Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington. Seattle, WA 92 pp.

 

Dinnel, P. A., R. O. McMillan, D. A. Armstrong, T. C. Wainwright, A. J. Whiley, R. Burge, and R. Bumgarner. 1986. Padilla Bay Dungeness crab, Cancer magister, habitat study. Report to NOAA/OCRM/MEMD by Univ. Wash. Fisheries Research Institute. Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. . (Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve Reprint Series No.3, 1990) 78 pp. Habitat preference for young of the year was intertidal or subtidal areas with either algae or eelgrass cover. Older crabs were in deeper channels. Egg-bearing females were absent from shallow areas of Padilla Bay.

 

Dogfish Environmental Assessment Team. 1986. The spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) and the dogfish fishery in Puget Sound. Huxley College of Environmental Studies. Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA 71 pp. Beginning in the 1880's, dogfish were commercially exploited for lamp oil. Dogfish livers were used as a vitamin A source during the 1930's and 1940's. In 1975, a market began dogfish as human food. Arrowac Fisheries and Dahl Fisheries process dogfish in Bellingham. A 1970 study found 75% of sampled dogfish to have mercury content in excess of the 0.5 ppm maximum allowable standard. Until a 1978 court case caused a change in the method to calculate mercury content, dogfish could not be sold in domestic markets and had to be exported to countries were the maximum allowable standard was 1 ppm. An inshore dogfish population is centered in Georgia Strait with about 3% of commercial catches from Bellingham Bay. Midwater trawls catch juveniles of less than 60 cm. in length. Larger juveniles and adults prefer deeper water. Females mature at an average of 23 years and males average 14 years at maturity. The dogfish is ovoviviparous with a two year gestation period that produces an average of six to seven young.

 

Donnelly, R. F., S. C. Clarke, R. R. Lauth, B. S. Miller, and J. H. Stadler. 1988. Demersal fish assemblages sampled at Puget Sound PSDDA sites. School of Fisheries, University of Washington. Seattle, WA. (Contribution No. 752) 3 pp.

 

Donnelly, R. F., B. S. Miller, J. H. Stadler, L. Christensen, K. Larsen, and P. A. Dinnel. 1988. Puget Sound dredged disposal analysis (PSSDA) Phase II disposal site bottomfish investigations. Final report. Fisheries Research Institute, University of Washington. Seattle, WA 149 pp.

 

Driggers, V. W. 1964. Tracer dye studies in Lake Union and Bellingham Bay. M.S. Thesis. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 73 pp.

 

Eissinger, A. M. 1994. Marine and shoreline wildlife areas: Whatcom County, Washington. Whatcom County Planning Division. Bellingham, WA. 65 pp.

Eissinger, A. M. and D.P. Drummond. 1994. The wildlife and habitat of the Lummi Reservation. Lummi Forestry environmental assessment: wildlife element. Lummi Nation. Bellingham, WA.

 

Evans-Hamilton, I., and D.R. Systems Inc. 1987. Puget Sound environmental atlas. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Seattle, WA. (EPA 910/9-86-157) 233 pp. Data from 1980 to 1986 are categorized by natural resources, physical environment, human use patterns, known pollution sources, and areas of environmental concern.

 

Everitt, R. D., C. H. Fiscus, and R. L. Delong. 1979. Marine mammals of northern Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca: a report on investigations November 1, 1977 to October 31, 1978. NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL MESA 41. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Rockville, MD 191 pp.

 

Everitt, R. D., C. H. Fiscus, and R. L. Delong. 1980. Northern Puget Sound marine mammals. DOC/EPA Interagency Energy/Environment Research and Development Program Report, EPA 600/7-80-139. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington D.C. 134 pp.

 

Faigenblum, J. 1988. Chemicals and bacteriological organisms in recreational shellfish. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services. Olympia, WA 109 pp.

 

Feely, R. A. et al. 1986. Seasonal and vertical variations in the elemental composition of suspended and settling particulate matter in Puget Sound, Washington. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science:215-239.

 

Feely, R. A., and M. F. Lamb. 1979. A study of the dispersal of suspended sediment from the Fraser and Skagit rivers into northern Puget Sound using landsat imagery. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. Seattle, WA. (Interagency, Energy/Environment R and D Program Report No. EPA-600/7-79-165) 46 pp.

 

Fish and Wildlife Technical Committee. 1970. Comprehensive study of water and related land resources: Puget Sound and adjacent waters. Appendix XI: Fish and wildlife. Puget Sound Task Force of the Pacific Northwest River Basin Commission. pp. Bellingham Bay shorelines including the Nooksack River delta were identified as having medium to high waterfowl densities. A small sockeye salmon run was known from a North Fork Nooksack River side channel. Located 3.5 upstream from Glacier, the channel is one-half mile long. Limited sockeye salmon runs were noted for the South fork and other parts of the North fork. Chum, chinook, pink, and coho salmon also were known to use the Nooksack River for spawning and rearing. Steelhead, searun cutthroat, and Dolly Varden also use the system. Juvenile outmigration occurs from March through August depending on the species. Improvement of water quality for estuarine and marine portions of Bellingham was noted as necessary to curtail drastic reductions in anadromous fish populations. Instream flows at Deming between 1,600 to 4,000 cfs, depending on the month, were deemed necessary to protect fish populations. Other factors affecting fish and shellfish population are discussed.

 

Fresh, K. L. 1979. Distribution and abundance of fishes occurring in the nearshore surface water of northern Puget Sound, Washington. M.S. Thesis. University of Washington.

 

Gardner, F., ed. 1981. Washington coastal areas of major biological significance. Washington Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 631 pp.

 

Goodwin, C. L., and W. Shaul. 1978. Puget Sound subtidal hardshell clam survey data. Washington State Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (Progress Report No. 44) 92 pp.

 

Harman, R. A., and J. C. Serwold. 1975. Summary of northern Puget Sound studies. For Northern Puget Sound Baseline Study. 110 pp.

 

Harvey, S., L. Johnson, and G. Sanders. 1973. Bellingham Bay study: a planning analysis. Western Washington University, Huxley College. Bellingham, WA.

 

Henny, C. J., L. J. Blus, R. A. Grove, and S. P. Thompson. In press (1991). Accumulation of trace elements and organochlorines by surf scoters wintering in the Pacific Northwest. Northwestern Naturalist 72.

 

Henny, C. J., L. J. Blus, S. P. Thompson, and U. W. Wilson. 1989. Environmental contaminants, human disturbance and nesting of double-crested cormorants in northwest Washington. Colonial Waterbirds 12:198-206.

 

Hitchman, J. H. 1972. The Port of Bellingham 1920 - 1970. Western Washington State College. Bellingham, WA. (Occasional Paper No.1, Center for Pacific Northwest Studies) ?? pp.

 

Hulsan, S. G., W. A. Palsson, and G. J. Hueckel. 1986. An annotated bibliography of Puget Sound nearshore habitat and marine fish life history studies. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (Technical Report No. 91) 68 pp.

 

Huxley College. 1989. Environmental assessment of Chuckanut Bay. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA.

 

Kendall, D. R., and D. Clark. 1988. Evaluation of benthic habitat quality and bottomfish feeding habitat potential at PSDDA dipsoal sites in Puget Sound. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Seattle, WA 4 pp.

 

Kendra, W. 1988. Investigations of recurrent coho salmon mortality at the Maritime Heritage fish hatchery in Bellingham, WA. Washington State Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 49 pp.

 

Koons, R., and R. Cardwell. 1981. Significant areas for certain species of food fish and shellfish in Puget Sound. Washington State Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (Technical Report No. 59) 46 pp.

 

Kunze, L. M. 1984. Puget Trough coastal wetlands: a summary report of biologically significant sites. Washington Natural Heritage Program, Department of Natural Resources, for Washington Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 154 pp. Nothing noted for Bellingham Bay.

 

Landau Associates, I. 1991. Remediation plan (revised): Fourth and Harris site, Port of Bellingham. Port of Bellingham. Bellingham, WA pp. Prior to developement, the site located at Fourth and Harris was adjacent to Bellingham Bay. The northern part of the site was within a high energy intertidal beach zone and the southern part of the site was composed of compacted glacial deposits. Over years, city blocks were filled with a variety of materials. A geologic cross section shows a previous shoreline, oriented east-west, about 180 feet south of Harris Avenue. The beach was composed of sand and shell fragments.

 

Long, E., ed. 1983. A synthesis of boilogical data from the Strait of Juan de Fuca and northern Puget Sound. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seattle, WA. (EPA 600 / 7-82-004). pg 48-52, 80-87, figs 10(p.49) and 23(p.89)

 

Lummi Fisheries. 1989. Dredge and fill activity in Bellingham Bay. Water quality problems in two northern Puget Sound embayments. Lummi Fisheries. Bellingham, WA 4 pp.

 

Manuwal, D. A., T. R. Wahl, and S. M. Speich. 1979. The seasonal distribution and abundance of marine bird populations in the Strait of Juan de Fuca and northern Puget Sound in 1978. NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL MESA 44. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Boulder, CO 391 pp. Northeast Bellingham Bay and Chuckanut Bay were identified as locations of less than 50 breeding pairs of Glaucous-winged Gulls. These same locations contained less than 25 breeding pairs of Pigeon Guillemots. The largest wintering population of Western Grebes (22,000) was found in Bellingham Bay. During winter, about 50 Whistling Swans (Tundra) were noted on the Nooksack River delta. Bald eagles were also present on the Nooksack delta through out the year. Dunlins were the most common shorebird on the delta from November to April, and Western Sandpipers were the most common fall and spring migrants. The amount of spawning herring affected spring counts of diving ducks and gulls in Hale Passage. Bellingham Bay was identified as an important biologically productive area for migrant and wintering diving birds, waterfowl, and nonbreeding congregations of various species. The Bay has 36 km2 of shoreline and 122 km2 of open water bird habitat.

Martin, J. L. 1973. The effect of the twin delta of the Nooksack River on the benthos of the Lummi Pennisula. M.S. Thesis, Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA. 62 pp.

 

Mathematical Sciences Northwest, I. 1977. Washington coastal areas of major biological significance, Baseline Study Program ed. Washington State Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA. (Appendix G) 563 pp.

 

Melvin, D. J. 1991. Growing areas (shellfish) classification report, North Bay. Washington State Department of Health.

 

Monaco, M. E., and R. L. Emmett. 1988. The estuarine living marine resources project: Washington state component. Strategic Assessment Branch, NOS/NOAA. Rockville, MD 82 pp.

 

Monaco, M. E., D. M. Nelson, R. L. Emmett, and S. A. Hinton. 1990. Distribution and abundance of fishes and invertebrates in West Coast estuaries, Vol. 1: Data summaries. Strategic Assessment Branch, NOS/NOAA. Rockville, MD. (Estuaries Living Marine Resources (ELMR) Report No.4) 240 pp. As part of an effort to develop a data base of abundance and distribution of selected fishes and invertebrates, 47 species living in West Coast estuaries are targeted. Representative organisms were selected based on economic or recreational importance, indicators of environmental stress, or ecological value as prey. Bellingham Bay is not identified; however, Skagit Bay and Puget Sound are. Following is a summary for Skagit Bay. Species (29) include blue mussel, Pacific oyster, Pacific gaper, horse clam, littleneck clam, Manila clam, softshell clam, geoduck, bay shrimp, Dungeness crab, Pacific herring, northern anchovy, winter and summer steelhead, coho, fall and spring chinook, chum, pink, sockeye, surf smelt, longfin smelt, Pacific tomcod, threespine stickleback, shiner perch, Pacific sand lance, arrow goby, lingcod, Pacific staghorn sculpin, English sole, and starry flounder. Relative abundance, life stage, salinities and months of occurrance are provided.

 

Nelson, J. M. 1981. Age classes, growth, and population density of the butter clam Saxidomus giganteus Deshayes at Brant Point, Bellingham Bay, Washington. M.S. Thesis. Western Washington University.

 

Nelson, J. M., J. Andrews, G. Graves, K. Holm, J. Jones, J. Specker, J. Vecchione, and Holzman. 1974. Mercury in the benthos of Bellingham Bay. Unpublished report. Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA 63 pp.

 

Northwest Environmental Consultants, I., G. B. Shea, C. C. Ebbesmeyer, Q. J. Stober, K. Pazera, J. M. Cox, S. Hemingway, J. M. Helseth, and L. R. Hinchey. 1981. History and effluent of pulpmill effluent discharges, Bellingham, Washington. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 491 pp. The document summaries existing studies and maps, as of 1981,related to oceanographic, toxicological, and biological studies for Bellingham Bay. The pulp operation began in 1928 using a sulfite process. In 1943, an alcohol recovery plant came on line. In 1965 the chlor/alkali plant began operation and bi-product was dumped into Whatcom waterway until 1970 when a mercury recovery was installed. Further mercury recovery occurred in 1973 with a mercury sulfide process. Start up of lignin processing in 1971, primary treatment in 1970, secondary treatment in 1979, and a submarine diffuser in 1979, contributed to improved water quality especially in Whatcom waterway.

 

Surface seawater in the bay tends to move clockwise, flooding to the west, ebbing to the east, and is affected by prevailing southerly winds. Subsurface flows (3 m) are variable and tend to be counter clockwise. Waters leave the system through Bellingham and Guemes channels. Residence time for dilute water is between one and 11 days, with a typical residence of 4 to 5 days. Residence time is shortened with increased Nooksack River discharge and lengthened by southerly winds.

 

Bay biological resources include phytoplankton, macro-algae and eelgrass, zooplankton, shellfish, other invertebrates, fish, birds, and marine mammals. Species lists are provided. Phytoplankton showed seasonal abundance and diversity with summer peaks. Although some eelgrass beds were documented, a systematic study of macro-algae was lacking. Zooplankton included holoplankton, and larval forms of fish and invertebrates. Documented shellfish included cockles, and butter, littleneck, Manila, horse, softshell, and bent nose clams. Diversity of benthic subtidal annelids, molluscs, and echinoderms increased with distance from Whatcom waterway. A bryozoan, Schizoporella unicornis, was noted as sensitive to poor water quality. The bay supported commercial fisheries for crab, salmon, herring sac-roe, and bottom fish. From 1943-1975, between 28,000 and 415,000 crabs were annually landed from Bellingham and Samish bays. Trawl species included English sole, rock sole, starry flounder, butter sole, sand sole, true cod, lingcod, and several rockfish types. Wild Nooksack salmonids included coho, chum, pink, sockeye, spring chinook, summer-fall chinook, steelhead, searun cutthroat, and searun dolly varden. Nooksack hatchery salmon included fall chinook, coho, and chum. Herring spawning occurred in Portage Bay, Samish Bay and Hale Passage. The area west of Mt. Baker Plywood supported surf smelt spawning. Bird habitats of the Nooksack delta included tide flats, salt marsh, sandy islands, and undeveloped sandy beaches. Bird habitats of shorelines between Chuckanut Bay and south Bellingham included undeveloped rocky shores, protected harbors, and rocky islands. Bird habitats of Bellingham Bay included sandy undeveloped beaches and protected harbors. Important bay nesting sites include the Nooksack delta for Great Blue Heron, and the inner harbor for Pigeon Guillemots and Glaucaus-winged Gulls. The Nooksack delta was considered to be a biologically significant area for Dunlin, Bald Eagles, Mew Gulls, Great Blue Heron, Mallards, Pintails, and American Widgeons. Bufflehead and Greater Scaup are noted as important species of the open bay. Harbor seals hauled out in three bay locations: Chuckanut shore south of Governor's Point, near Brandt spit, and near Eliza Island. Harbor porpoises were sited near Portage and Eliza islands. Gray whales were occasionally spotted in Chuckanut Bay.

 

Peak Northwest, I. 1986. Nooksack River basin erosion and fisheries study. Peak Northwest, Inc. for Lummi Tribal Fisheries. Talent, OR 110 pp. The location, size, and type of sediment sources in five tributaries within the Nooksack River system are identified. Plans to reduce forestry related sediment production are provided.

 

Pentilla, D. 1984. Summary of winter herring hydroacoustic/trawl surveys in the Bellingham Bay area, December 1983 - January 1984. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA 20 pp.

 

Pentilla, D. 1985. Summary of winter herring hydroacoustic/trawl surveys in the Bellingham Bay area, December 1984 - January 1985. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA 17 pp.

 

Pentilla, D. 1986. Summary of winter herring hydroacoustic/trawl surveys in the Bellingham Bay area, January 1986. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA 19 pp.

 

Phillips, R. C. 1974. Temperate grass flats. Pages 244-299 in T. Odum, B. J. Copeland and E. A. McMahan, eds. Coastal ecosystems of the United States, vol. II. Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C.

 

Phillips, R. C. 1984. Ecology of eelgrass meadows in the Pacific Northwest: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Slidell, LA. (FWS/OBS-84-24) 85 pp.

 

PSWQA. 1988. Proceedings of the first annual meeting on Puget Sound research. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. Seattle, WA.

 

PTI Environmental Services. 1988. Puget Sound dredged disposal analysis baseline survey of phase I disposal sites. Washington Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 126 pp.

 

PTI Environmental Services. 1989. Puget Sound dredged disposal analysis baseline survey of phase II disposal sites. Washington Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 67 pp.

 

PTI Environmental Services, M. A. Jacobson, and P. A. Canterbury. 1991. Bellingham Bay action program: 1991 action plan. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seattle, WA. (EPA Contract 68-D8-0085, PTI Contract C744-24) 270 pp. Bellingham Bay is approximately 12 km long and 8-9 km wide. Waters tend to be less than 15 fathoms deep. The Nooksack River delta extends about 2 km into the bay and flows average 3,000 ft3/sec. About 650 m3 / yr of sediment is deposited in the bay from the Nooksack River. The bay is a stop point on a flight path between the Fraser River estuary and Skagit Bay for migrating brant, snow geese, mallard, widgeon, green-winged teal, and pintail. The bay is an over wintering area for diving ducks including scoter and golden eye. A band of the bay between Squalicum and Whatcom waterways, extending south toward Post Point is an area of potential concern regarding chemical contamination. Whatcom Waterway is an area of chemical concern. Bottom waters located near Starr Rock dredge disposal site and Post Point outfall had dissolved oxygen levels of 5 mg/L, which is below state standards of 6.0 mg/L for Class A marine waters. Low DO values might reflect oxygen content of deep marine waters that enter the bay. Several action plans are provided, one of which is to develop a marina monitoring program.

 

Puget Sound Dredge Disposal Sites. 1989. Puget Sound dredged disposal analysis management plan report: unconfined open-water disposal of dredged material, Phase II (north and south Puget Sound). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Washington Department of Natural Resources; Washington Department of Ecology. Seattle and Olympia, WA ?? pp.

 

Puget Sound Task Force - Pacific Northwest River Basins Commission. 1970. Comprehensive study of water and related land resources, Puget Sound and adjacent waters, State of Washington. . . (Appendix XI) pp.

 

Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. 1986. Issue paper: habitat and wetlands protection. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. Seattle,WA 70 pp. A 0.2% increase in area is estimated for the Nooksack River delta. An estimated 52 acres of mud flats and salt marshes were lost in the late 1970's in Bellingham Bay for expansion of Squalicum Marina. Surf smelt spawning beds are defined in WAC 220-110.

 

Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. 1988. State of the Sound: 1988 report. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. Seattle, WA 225 pp. Western Bellingham Bay is identified as a major holding area for Pacific herring, and Portage Bay and Governor's Point are identified as major spawning areas. Herring stocks are declining near Bellingham. The north bay between the Nooksack delta and Squalicum Creek is identified as a major surf smelt spawning beach. The bay is mapped as a commercial salmon harvest area, a major groundfish resource area, and a location of major Dungeness crab populations. The delta is identified as a sea haul out area. Shorelands surrounding Portage Island are locations of commercially harvested intertidal clam and oyster beds. The bay is not identified as a major location for geoducks, waterfowl, kelp beds, or eelgrass meadows. The design flow Bellingham's sewer treatment plant is 10.4 MGD; that for Georgia Pacific was unavailable. Bay sediments contain high levels of mercury and moderate levels of copper and zinc. Greater than 50% amphipod mortality occurred when exposed to bay sediments. Reduction in sulfite waste liquor is noted. A beach is closed to bivalve harvest when PSP tissue toxin exceeds 0.8 ppm. PSP toxins have been found below concern levels for limpets, snails, and Dungeness crabs. In 1987, the north bay was closed to bivalve harvest.

 

Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. 1989. An annotated bibliography of agency materials. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. Seattle, WA 35 pp. Focus is on sources of water quality degradation, rather than biological resources or habitats.

 

Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. 1991. Puget Sound update: 2nd annual report of the Puget Sound ambient monitoring program. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority. Olympia, WA 99 pp. In surveys conducted between 1984 and 1989, the National Status and Trends (NS&T) program of NOAA, found high levels of arsenic in Bellingham Bay sediments, although levels did not exceed the 57 ppm standard. NS&T found about 275 ppm phenathrene (standard = 100 ppm) in bay sediments. Sediment mercury of 0.25 ppm based on NS&T findings was less than the 0.41 ppm standard. PSSDA studies in 1988 and 1989 found bay sediments to contain about 0.35 ppm mercury. During 1989 and 1990, nitrate/nitrite in the bay reached seasonal highs of 32 umoles during winter and lows of 2 umoles during the April to September phytoplankton growing season. These ranges are indicative of water columns that stablize during spring and summer. Nooksack River runoff is considered the main nutrient source. Hatchery steelhead populations have been decreasing in the Nooksack and Samish river systems since the 1980s. A 1989 survey found no liver abnormalities in English sole sampled from the bay. A 1989-90 sampling found fecal coliform counts from bay bivalves to not be in excess of state standards for commercial shellfish. In 1990 gray whale(s) were sited near Chuckanut Bay. The northern bay is mapped as a colony site for marine birds. Bird species that have reproductive problems due to contaminants or habitat impacts include Glaucaus-winged Gulls, Great Blue Herons, Pigeon Guillemots, Bald Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine Falcons, and Merlins. A 9% increase in salt marsh area is indicated for the Nooksack River delta, although throughout Puget Sound there has been a 73% decline in salt marshes since the 1880s. Within Bellingham Bay, use of old navigation charts suggests a 30% decline in shoreline eelgrass most probably due to diking, filling, and contamination.

 

Rasmussen, L. F., and D. C. Williams. 1975. . Northwest Science 49:87-94. A survey of mercury in intertidal organisms collected several sites in Bellingham Bay, indicated that organisms contained an order of magnitude more mercury (0.15 mg/kg) than organisms from a reference site in Birch Bay (0.015 mg/kg). Dungeness crabs from Bellingham Bay contained three to four times as much mercury as those from a reference site in Samish Bay.

 

Rensel Associates, and PTI Environmental Services. 1991. Nutrients and phytoplankton in Puget Sound. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Office of Coastal Waters. Seattle, WA

 

Roesijadi, G., A. S. Drum, and J. R. Bridge. 1981. Mercury in mussels of Bellingham Bay, Washington (USA): the occurrence of mercury binding proteins. Academic Press, Inc. New York, NY. (In: Biological monitoring of marine pollutants) 357-376 pp.

 

Ross, J. R. P., and K. S. McCain. 1976. Schizoporella unicornis (Entoprocta) in coastal waters of northwestern United States and Canada. Northwest Science 50:160-171.

 

SAIC. 1991. PSDDA 1990 crab bioaccumulation survey of Bellingham Bay, report to Washington State Department of Natural Resources. Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic Lands. Olympia, WA.

 

Salo, L. J. 1975. A baseline survey of significant marine birds in Washington state. Coastal zone environmental studies report no.1. Washington Department of Game. Olympia, WA 417 pp.

 

Salo, L. J. 1975. A baseline survey of significant marine birds in Washington State. Prepared for the Washington State Oil Baseline Program. Olympia, WA. (Appendix H) 417 pp.

 

Schmitt, C., S. Quinnell, M. Rickey, and M. Stanley. 1991. Groundfish statistics from commercial fisheries in Puget Sound, 1970-1988. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (State of Washington Department of Fisheries Progress Report No.285) pp.

 

Scott, J. W., and D. E. I. I. I. Turbeville. 1980. Early industries of Bellingham Bay and Whatcom County: a photographic essay. Fourth Corner Registry. Bellingham, WA 167 pp. Photographs and essays illustrate the shoreline and nearshore industries of the Bay from the 1880's through

 

Seliskar, D. M., and J. L. Gallagher. 1983. The ecology of tidal marshes of the Pacific Northwest coast: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Springfield, VA. (FWS/OBS-82-32) 65 pp.

 

Servici, J. A. 1971. A study of sediments from Bellingham harbor as related to marine disposal. Proceedings of 1st technical conference: estuaries of the Pacific Northwest, Oregon State University, Corvalis, OR. Circular No.42. . Two types of sediment from Whatcom waterway, Bellingham, were studied prior to a proposed dredge. Sedimdent from the inner harbor contained putrefying pulp fibers that exerted oxygen demand and created turbidity. Because of hydrogen sulfide content, associated water was toxic to juvenile sockeye salmon in a controlled test. Land disposal of sediments from the inner harbor was recommended. Hydraulic dredging and adjacent disposal was recommended for silt sediments from the outer harbor. These sediments created an oxygen demand and settled slowly.

 

Simenstad, C., B. S. Miller, C. F. Nyblade, K. Thornburgh, and L. J. Bledsoe. 1979. Food web relationships of northern Puget Sound and the Stratit of Juan de Fuca. A synthesis of the available knowledge. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. (EPA-600 / 7-79-259) 335 pp.

 

Simenstad, C. A. 1983. The ecology of estuarine channels of the Pacific Northwest coast: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Springfield, VA. (FWS/OBS-83-05) 181 pp.

 

Sjolseth, D. E., E. O. Salo, and M. Katz. 1970. Effect of water quality in Bellingham Bay on juvenile salmon. Pages ?? in Proceedings of the 5th International Water Pollution Research Conference July-August 1970. Pergamon Press Ltd.

Smith, G. F. 1976. A quantitative sampling program of benthic communities in nearshore subtidal areas within the Rosario Strait region of northern Puget Sound, Washington. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA 105 pp.

 

Smith, G., and H. H. Webber. 1978. A biological sampling program of intertidal habitats of northern Puget Sound. Washington Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA 325 pp. Although Bellingham Bay was not sampled, certain habitats existing in the bay were sampled at other locations and include shorelands that are rocky (Fidalgo Head, Point Migley), cobbled (Cherry Point, Shannon Point), and mud (Drayton Harbor, Fidalgo Bay, Padilla Bay).

 

Speich, S. M., and T. R. Wahl. 1989. Catalog of Washington seabird colonies. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Portland, OR. (Biological Report 88(6), OCS Study MMS 89-0054) 510 pp.

 

Squalicum Beach Assessment Team. 1988. Squalicum Beach: an environmental assessment. Huxley College of Environmental Studies. Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA 85 pp. The area from Locust Street to Mt. Baker Plywood was assessed. Until purchase by Tilbury Cement in 1987, industrial wastewater from the cement plant was discharged into Bellingham Bay. Because the plant is no longer active in cement manufacture, volume of wastewater discharge is reduced. In 1988, student sampling for coliform bacteria found counts of 240 organisms per milliliter (ml) at the cement plant outfall, 1,000 organisms / ml at the mouth of Little Squalicum Creek, and organisms too numerous to count originating from outfalls associated with Seaview Gardens. A total of seventy-six bird species may frequent the area with four species considered abundant, twenty-two species considered common, thirty-five species considered uncommon, and fifteen species considered rare. Great blue herons, mallard ducks, killdeer, and glaucous winged gulls are year round residents. Green backed herons, mallard ducks, killdeer, and glaucous winged gulls nest in the area. Dominant intertidal and subtidal invertebrates include polychaete worms, clams, isopods, amphipods, barnacles, shore crabs, and Dungeness crab. Fish include flounder, sole, herring, smelt, dogfish, several sea run trout, and migrating coho, chum, and king salmon.

 

Stanley, R. F. 1980. Water quality conditions in the Bellingham Bay area, 1979 - 1980. Department of Ecology. Olympia, Washington. 61 pp. Water quality characteristics and benthic invertebrates were sampled before and after the wastewater treatment facility associated with Georgia Pacific went on line. Characteristics showed measurable improvement in 1980, after the treatment facility was operational. Up to 1979, industrial effluent was discharged directly to Whatcom Waterway in four locations. After the treatment facility was operational, all industrial effluent was routed to the lagoon for one week aerobic treatment prior to discharge via a 8,000 long pipe, the final 2,000 feet of which serve as a diffuser. The diffuser is located in 50 feet of water about 3,500 feet offshore from Boulevard Park. In 1979, no benthic infauna were found in sediment samples taken from the chlorine plant discharge point. In 1980, benthic infauna in the sample location was limited to "bloodworms". The sewage treatment plant moved from the site on Whatcom Creek to Post Point prior to document preparation.

 

Sternberg, R. W. 1967. Recent sediments in Bellingham Bay, Washington. Northwest Science 41:63-79.

 

Stick, K. 1990. Summary of 1989 pacific herring spawning ground surveys in Washington state waters. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (State of Washington Department of Fisheries Progress Report No.280 (ed.)) 101 pp.

 

Tetra Tech, I. 1985. Commencement Bay nearshore / tideflats remedial investigation. Washington Department of Ecology, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Olympia, WA.

 

Tetra Tech, I. 1988. Characterization of spatial and temporal trends in water quality in Puget Sound. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seattle, WA 102 pp.

 

Thom, R., and L. Hallum. 1990. Compilation and characterization of Puget Sound nearshore and estuarine wetland habitat. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seattle, WA. (EPA 910/9-91-005) 52 pp.

 

Thom, R. M. 1987. The biological importance of Pacific Northwest estuaries. Northwest Environmental Journal:21-42.

 

Tollefson, R. 1962. Summary of existing hydrographic data - north Puget Sound, 1953 - 1961. . . (Report to the Puget Sound Pulp and Paper Company) 65 pp.

 

Tollefson, R. 1962. Basic biological productivity - Bellingham Bay, March 1959 - July 1961. 128 pp.

 

Tollefson, R. 1963. J.Wat.Pollut.Control Fed. 35:989-1005. Plankton from Bellingham Bay were identified and counted. Growth rates, seasonal population composition, and area of occurrance are described. No biological depression was found in response to industrial waste discharges. Natural hydrographic variations accounted for 85% of population standard deviation.

 

Trumble, R., D. Pentilla, D. Day, P. McAllister, J. Boeltner, R. Adair, and P. Wares. 1977. Results of herring spawning ground surveys in Puget Sound, 1975 and 1976. (Progress Report No.21) .

 

Tyler, R. W. 1964. Distribution and migration of young salmon in Bellingham Bay, Washington. College of Fisheries, University of Washington. Seattle, WA. (Fisheries Research Institute Circular No. 212) 26 pp.

 

Tyler, R. W., and D. E. Bevan. 1965. The distribution of juvenile salmon in Bellingham Bay. 1964 Research in Fisheries, University of Washington, College of Fisheries. Contribution No. 184, pp. 23-29 . Distribution of salmon fry and spent sulfite liquor from pulp operations are assessed.

 

United States Army Corps of Engineers. 1938. Ports of Everett, Bellingham, and Grays Harbor, Washington. United States Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. (Port Series No. 28) 255 pp. By 1937, twenty industries were located on the Bellingham waterfront at South Terminal, Taylor Street, Whatcom Waterway, I & J Waterway, Squalicum Waterway, and the cement plant. The boat harbor was located at the current mouth of Squalicum Creek. The mouth of Squalicum Creek was situated a quarter mile east of its present location.

 

United States Army Corps of Engineers. 1965. The ports of Port Angeles, Anacortes, Everett, and Bellingham, Washington. United States Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. (Port Series No. 37) 114 pp. By 1965, fifty industries occupied the Bellingham waterfront at South Terminal, Padden Creek, Taylor Street, present day Boulevard park, Whatcom Waterway, I & J Street Waterway, Squalicum Waterway, and the cement plant. The boat harbor was at its present location. Squalicum Creek entered Bellingham Bay at its present location.

 

United States Army Corps of Engineers. 1976. The ports of Port Angeles, Port Townsend, Everett, Anacortes and Bellingham, Washington. United States Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. (Port Series No. 37) 125 pp. By 1975, thirty seven industries occupied the Bellingham waterfront at South Terminal, Padden Creek, present day Boulevard Park, Whatcom Waterway, I & J Waterway, Squalicum Waterway, and the cement plant. The small boat harbor increased in capacity. The mouth of Squalicum Creek was in its present location.

 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1977. Current study of Bellingham Harbor. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Project Planning Section. Seattle, WA 28 pp.

 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1978. Environmental impact statement: Bellingham Harbor Navigation Project, September 1978, operation and maintenance. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Seattle, WA 76 pp.

 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, S. C. S. 1953. Land and water resources survey: western Whatcom County, Washington. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C. 13 pp. The Nooksack River has two flood seasons. The November/December season responds to rainfall, the June/July season responds to snowmelt. From 1935 to 1952, average annual runoff was 2,260,000 acre feet measured at the Deming gauge station. A high runoff of 2,950,000 acre feet was recorded in 1950 and a low runoff of 1,550,000 acre feet was recorded in 1944. During this period, annual river runoff varied up to 30%.

 

U.S. Department of the Interior. 1967. Pollutional effects of pulp and paper mill wastes in Puget Sound. Washington State Pollution Control Commission. Olympia, Washington 474 pp. Studies for Bellingham Bay relate to water circulation, juvenile salmon, benthic organisms, oysters and larvae, flatfish eggs, zooplankton, and periphyton. Based on float and water quality (sulfide waste liquor) studies, variable circulation tends to move in a clockwise direction. Following a plant strike, SWL was nearly flushed within thirteen days. Within six days of plant startup, SWL levels reached pre-strike levels. Secchi disk readings from July 1963, found transperancy to three feet near the Nooksack River delta, and five feet near Post Point and Boulevard Park. In the north bay, reduced surface salinity between 20 and 26 ppt, formed a layer approximately five feet deep. Near Post Post, surface salinity of 25 to 28.5 ppt, formed a layer approximately eight feet deep.

 

The effects of pulp effluent to organisms is discussed. Chinook, silver, chum, pink, steelhead, sea-run cutthroat, and dolly varden salmonids used tributary streams for spawning and rearing. Trawls for surface juvenile salmonids obtained the highest catches from Post Point to Chuckanut Bay, near Portage Island, and south of the boat harbor. In-situ juvenile salmon mortality studies found that high mortality occurred with conditions of high SWL and low DO. However, variable water quality permitted juvenile survival at all test locations. Juvenile salmonids survived better in tests conducted west of Mt.Baker Plywood and south of the inner harbor, than in the inner harbor itself. Thirty-eight grab samples taken in 1964 and 1966 enumerated benthic organisms including worms, amphipods, seastars, crabs and shrimps, clams and snails, and anemones and bryozoans. Worms were the most numerous. An inverse relationship occurred between organism numbers and diversity compared with sediment total volitile solids. Unfavorable water conditions in the bay minimized settlement and development of Pacific oyster larvae. Juvenile oyster mortality was greatest (15.4%) near Post Post and diminished to to 6.2% and 7.9% respectively in Chuckanut and Samish bays. Mortality in Padilla Bay was 4.0% A similar pattern occurred with adult oyster mortality. Adult oysters from a study site located near Post Point had diminished condition index or plumpness, indicating compromised growth. Other organisms that settled on oyster panels were enumerated. Only barnacles and mussels were common at all stations. Limpets, nudibranchs, anemones, and tunicates were absent on panels from Bellingham Bay, but were seen on panels located further south. Studies of larval oysters found that salinities of less than 20 ppt adversely affected development. Abnormal development, north of Post Point occurred with 68% to 100% of the larvae. By comparison, only 2% to 4% of the larvae in Samish Bay were abnormal. A correlation existed between SWL concentrations and increased larval abnormality. After a fourteen day closure of the GP mill, larval abnormality for all stations, including the bay, was less than 1%. March is the peak reproductive season in Bellingham Bay for English sole. In 1966, sole egg volume from surface samples tended to be larger near the center of the bay. Plankton were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed. Lists of observed species are provided. Plankton abundance, diversity, and primary productivity were not found to be statistically different between sample stations probably because water exchange continuously renewed populations. Periphyton studies found reduced diversity near the mouth of the Nooksck River probably because of reduced salinity. In Whatcom waterway, reduced diversity was due to industrial effluent.

 

The following recommendations were made. Provide primary treatment for Georgia Pacific industrial effluent to reduce volitile suspended solids and sulfite waste liquor. Construct a submarine diffuser to discharge effluent outside of Whatcom waterway. Modify chip handling operations to minimize spillage. Provide facilities for handling waste from food processors to prevent direct release into Bellingham Bay. Provide collection and secondary treatment for domestic sewage, including untreated sewage from the Fairhaven area, with a discharge outside Whatcom waterway. Dredge industrial sludge in Whatcom waterway and dispose of it in an appropriate way. By 1995, all but the final recommendation has been accomplished.

 

Wahl, T., B. Colebrook, R. Thom, and W. Bauer. 1990. Padden Creek estuary area planning study. Bellingham Parks and Recreation Department. Bellingham, WA 80 pp. Existing habitats and organisms are identified for Padden Creek lagoon and two Padden Creek riparian areas. Two November 1988 agreements focused on restoring urban wildlife habitat associated with Padden Creek Lagoon, including fish populations. A former saltmarsh existed at Eighth and Larrabee. In 1889, Harris Avenue west of Eighth Street, was land composed either of fill or was a natural spit. Predominant marsh plants of the four acre lagoon include Juncus, Salicornia, Spurgularia, tufted hairgrass, fleshy jaumea and Pacific silverweed. Several water birds use the lagoon including loons, mergansers, goldeneyes, gulls, buffleheads, mallards, and Western grebe. Hatchery salmonid juveniles use the creek including steelhead, cutthroat trout, coho, and chinook. Limited populations of native fish that use the creek include sea-run cutthroat and steelhead. Black tail deer, fox, river otter, and the wandering garter snake were seen near the lagoon. Appendices include species inventories for plants and 130 birds.

 

Wahl, T. R. 1995. In press. Birds of Whatcom County.

Wahl, T. R. and D.R. Paulson. 1991. A guide to bird finding in Washington state. T.R. Wahl. Bellingham, WA. 177 pp.

 

Wahl, T. R., S. M. Speich, D. A. Manuwal, K. V. Hirsch, and C. Miller. 1981. Marine bird populations of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Strait of Georgia, and adjacent waters in 1978 and 1979. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. (DOC/EPA Interagency Energy/Environment Research and Development Program Report, EPA 600/7-81-156) 789 pp.

 

Washington Department of Ecology. 1979. Coastal zone atlas of Washington. Washington Department of Ecology. Olympia, WA.

 

Washington Department of Ecology. 1994. Draft: North Puget Sound, Washington geographic response plan (GRP). Olympia, WA. 30 pp.

 

Washington Department of Fisheries. 1984. Salmon, marine fish, and shellfish resources and associated fisheries in Washington's coastal and inland marine waters. Washington Department of Fisheries. Olympia, WA. (Technical Report No. 79).

 

Washington Department of Fisheries. Various years. Yearly commercial catch data for finfishes and invertebrates in the Bellingham - Samish Bay area. Data from Washington Department of Fisheries.

 

Washington Department of Natural Resources. 1977. Washington marine atlas, Vol. Vols 1,2, and 3. Washington Department of Natural Resources. Olympia, WA.

 

Washington Interagency Committee for Outdoor Recreation. 1987. Washington wetlands priority plan. Draft report. Washington Interagency Committee for Outdoor Recreation. Olympia, WA 108 pp.

 

Webber, H. H. 1974. Mercury in the benthos of Bellingham Bay, Washington. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA. (Prepared for NSF / SOS Grant No. GY-11459) 60 pp. Samples from July to September 1974 analysed mercury content in sediment and tissues from select organisms. From Squalicum Marina to Boulevard Park, sediment was black and dominated by wood chips. Mercury content in benthic animal tissues was highest in Whatcom Waterway, at the south entrance to the old Squalicum Harbor, and northwest of the seaward entrance to I & J Waterway. The amount of mercury in tissues did not correlate well with sediment quantities. Background levels of sediment mercury were estimated to be 0.5 ppm while mercury background levels for tissues were estimated at 0.2 ppm. Various fish (staghorn sculpin, blackbelly eelpout, Pacific tom cod, English sole, Starry flounder, and Longfin smelt), crab (Dungeness and red rock), and shrimp were analysed for mercury content. Tissue samples Whatcom Waterway revealed elevated levels of mercury, however, all values were within FDA guidelines.

 

Webber, H. H. 1975. The Bellingham Bay estuary: a natural history study. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 92 pp. Diversity and abundance of fish, invertebrates, birds, and marine mammals were analyzed. Zooplankton, fish stomach contents, location of eelgrass beds, log booms, and wood debris were assessed. Oyster larvae bioassays were conducted. Salinity, temperature, and turbidity were measured. Methods included beach seines, otter trawls, plankton tows, Peterson grabs, Ekman grabs, beach transects, and Hydrolab analyses. No studies of primary productivity were conducted.

 

Webber, H. H. 1977. Draft Bellingham Bay literature survey: relationship of water quality, biological effects, and biological components, to dredging. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA 52 pp.

 

Webber, H. H. 1978. Studies on intertidal and subtidal benthos, fish and water quality in Bellingham Bay. Huxley College of Environmental Studies, Western Washington University. Bellingham, WA. (Prepared for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers) 87 pp.

 

Webber, H. H. 1981. Growth rates of benthic algae and invertebrates in Puget Sound: I. Literature review, and II. Field studies on Laminaria and Nereocystis. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration. Boulder, Colorado. (NOAA Technical Memorandum OMPA-4) 45 pp. Phillips (1974) estimated that Zostera marina covered about 9% of bottomlands in Puget Sound, about 4.5 x 10e8 m2. He found that seeds germinated in June while new turions and leaves began growth in February. Carbon fixation was estimated at 1.5 g carbon / m2 / growing season (15 hours).

 

Whatcom County Planning Department. 1992. Whatcom County shoreline management program: background document. Whatcom County Planning Department. Bellingham, WA.

 

Whatcom County Planning Department. 1993. Shoreline Management Program. Whatcom County Planning Department. Whatcom County, Washington. 171 pp. Shorelines associated with the plywood plant are designated Urban, the area from the mouth of the Nooksack River east to the plywood plant is designated Convervancy, and associated offshore waters are designated Aquatic.