Research Findings Relevant to EE Paradigm III:
Place-based Environmental Education
A. Environmental Sensitivity
Bixler, R. & Morris, B. (1997). The role of "outdoor capital" in the
socialization of wildland recreationists. In H. Vogelson (Ed.), Proceedings
of the 1997 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium. Bolton, NY: Northeastern
Forest Experiment Station.
Chawla, L. (1999). Life paths into effective environmental action. Journal
of Environmental Education31(1): 15-26
Chawla, L. (1998). Significant life experiences revisited: A review of
research on sources of environmental sensitivity. Journal of Environmental
Education 29 (3): 11-21.
Palmer, J. A. (1993). Development of concern for the environment
and formative experiences of educators. Journal of Environmental
Education 24 (3): 26-30.
B. Development of moral care and respect for nature
Cognitive-moral development and biocentrism
How are cognitive evaluations of nature constructed over development,
possibly culminating in a biocentric conception?
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It's not the case that moral concern for humans comes first and is generalized
to nature; younger children are concerned about the welfare of others in
an unelaborated fashion. But as they mature, nature-oriented and human-oriented
mental structures emerge together, building on each other.
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Moral concern about nature is widespread, including in samples from different
cultures. Children:
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Cared about harm to nonhuman environments and life
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Distinguished between injury caused by humans versus predation
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Saw human treatment of nature as a matter of moral obligation.
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Their conceptions of harmony with nature also showed developmental trends.
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The important developmental inputs are direct experience with nature, and
constructivist instruction that helps young people build their own understandings
of the meanings and value of nature. Traditional structural-development
moral theory suggests that discussing hypothetical moral dilemmas leads
to growth because it fosters "cognitive disequilibrium."
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An ethic of care toward nature is strongly evident in the development of
adolescents, especially girls. It centers on relationship and personal
responsibility more than on rules and formal justice.
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Girls and boys do employ both care and justice perspectives, though girls
tend to use both more Female gender role orientation predicts use of the
care orientation more strongly than does gender itself.
Kahn, P. H. Jr. (1999). The human relationship with nature: Development
and culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kahn, P. H. Jr. (1997). Developmental psychology and the biophilia hypothesis:
Children's affiliation with nature. Developmental Review 17(1):1-61.
Beringer, A. (1994). The moral ideals of care and respect: A hermeneutic
inquiry into adolescents' environmental ethics and moral functioning.
Frankfurt: Peter Lang Publishing.
Britner, S. L. (1999). Moral voices in environmental education: The relationship
of gender and gender orientation. Paper presented at the meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada, April 19-23.
The self, moral emotion, and moral functioning and biocentrism
Social development is central in the emergence of a biocentric sense
of self:
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Children's developmentally-probable senses of interest, concern and community
with other animals who they know directly is the starting point for expanded
concern about nature in this approach.
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Interacting with animals recruits children's social abilities in unique
ways, but with the result that most children respond with moral emotion
to wrongs against animals.
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Emotion and social interaction are regarded as equally or more important
in development and behavior than is cognition.
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The challenge developmentally is two-fold:
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1) to extend understanding and care from individual animals to the interdependence
of animals with their habitats and ecosystems, including human actions
in the environment (while also retaining care about individuals)
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2) to negotiate challenges to such caring that are voiced by others, which
is inevitable in a social context that does not fully support it
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The necessary "social disequilibrium" and moral dialogue implicit in this
last point is of critical importance in driving individual and social moral
development.
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A range of experiences with nature, and a deepening engagement in discussion
wherein value commitments are fleshed out with peers in adolescence are
expected to be developmentally important.
Myers, O. E. Jr. (1998). Children and animals: Social development and
our connections to other species. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Myers, Jr. O. E. & Saunders, C. (2002). Animals as links to developing
caring relationships with the natural world. In P. H. Kahn Jr. & S.
R. Kellert (Eds.), Children and nature: Theoretical and scientific foundations.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Parenting behaviors that promote empathy & moral development
Caregivers can encourage empathic responding by:
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Pointing out other people's feelings
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Encouraging child to think about others' feelings
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Encouraging child to think how self would feel in the same situation
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Informing child of effects of his or her behavior on others' feelings,
including the caregiver's own feelings
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Explaining why people feel the way they do
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Making clear, and encouraging child to discover, what actions she
or he can take that would be more considerate
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Letting child know that being considerate is important to you, and
.expected
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Letting child know that you understand and care about her feelings,
and trying to offer a way to get at least some of what she wants, if not
now then in the future
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Not expecting children to read minds - rather, taking time to explain.
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Helping child understand others' feelings by reminding him or her
of similar experiences in his or her own life.
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Helping her or him resist the influence of people who discourage
or ridicule empathic feelings
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Giving approval when she or he is considerate. Showing disapproval
when she or he isn't.
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Teaching child to imagine self in the other's place whenever child
feels inclined to hurt that person
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Sharing your empathic feelings with her
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Pointing out examples of empathic persons, and your admiration of
them; pointing out examples of those who are not empathic
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Stressing the good feelings that come from caring about others
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Encouraging her or him to consider a person's capacity for empathy
when selecting friends
Schulman, M. & Mekler, E. (1985). Bringing up a moral child.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
C. Relationship to Place