The way a problem is formulated contains assumptions that may have dramatic effects on the solutions that are proposed. Being able to recognize different problem formulations and evaluate their significance is a critical skill in problem analysis and solving. Being able to carefully examine and critique such formulations is very important - it increases the chance we will find the right questions, as well as avoid false answers!! Better problem solvers spend much time exploring and structuring the problem.
Because environmental issues are so complicated, important, and (sometimes unnecessarily) contested, information must always be carefully evaluated. The various players are often trying to persuade others to adopt their ideas (beliefs and values) or actions (solutions). We all use persuasive language and everyone realizes it. Nonetheless, knowing we do it is different from the ability to spot deceptive, fallacious, or self-interested arguments. But note: not all rhetoric is equally suspect; sometimes it is intelligent to be persuaded. Learning the skills to tell one from the other takes practice, and usually it requires knowledge of the subject as well. In this assignment, you aren't asked to take a position on the issue, but you are asked to think about information you receive, and to critically evaluate it yourself. And remember: applying this skill is equally if not more important (and difficult) when examining arguments with which you agree!!
Topic:
Your topics are the problem formulation and rhetorical strategies
used by the proponents of one position in the issue you are examining. If
you feel your issue is not suitable for this, here are two suggestions:
choose one of the issues surrounding reauthorization of the Endangered
Species Act (but don't pick the articles from the class readings packet),
or focus on some aspect of globalization.
Procedure:
1) You must find a piece of writing that represents one position on
the issue you are studying. It should use persuasive language, and
attempt to change or affirm the reader's opinion. This typically will
not be a newspaper article, unless it is from an advocacy
publication. (Articles - even editorials - from academic
journals are not adequate either). Often it will be
an opinion piece, editorial, piece of campaign literature, position paper,
fund-raising mailer, industry or advocacy group statement, or
advertisement (but one that uses language to sell an idea, not just an
image or product). Sometimes it's hard to recognize persuasive writing;
indeed, this first step of the assignment is not trivial!! Hand
in a copy of the article, stapled to your paper.
2) Read the piece, and note your first impressions. Then read it again, carefully, asking yourself what the author thinks the problem is. Based on what you know about this issue, determine how this writer has defined or formulated the problem. Write a sentence presenting the problem in the author's view, and then in a short paragraph explore what's assumed and implied by looking at it this way. For example, you might ask how does this definition differ from others' positions? What is characteristic about it; what beliefs and values does it assume; what does it include and what does it leave out in discussing the problem? What does it assume about people? About nature? About change?
3) What persuasive strategies are employed? Beyond the framing of the problem, has the author used such strategies as affiliation, emotional manipulation, misleading metaphors, rapport-building, absolutes, personal attacks, either-or reasoning, us-vs-them language, over generalization, straw-man, the genetic fallacy, equivocation, or jumping to a conclusion? These strategies are not all easy to detect. Jacob's book, The Bum's Rush (recommended for this course, or the books listed below, which are on Reserve for this course, can help you learn to recognize and evaluate these techniques. As a start, here is a summary of many of the chief strategies. Examine 4 different instances of persuasive language from your article: quote the example, and identify and explain what techniques are being used to persuade. It doesn't matter whether you think the author is correct in her or his assertions, or whether you agree.
4) Factual claims are central in arguments of this sort. There may be many used in your example. I don't expect you to check them all, but just to see how absolutely important this activity can be, and to get a little research experience, list at least 3 key facts the author uses to support her or his argument, and choose one to check. Find at least one independent source, and check the author's fact against it. Report what you found, and cite your separate source(s).
5) In your final paragraph, pose any questions you now think are relevant both to the exploration and evaluation of the position you examined, and to the investigation of the issue overall. For example, what variables or relationships do you need to know about to better evaluate or resolve this issue?
Evaluation:
Suitability of piece chosen for the assignment and discussion of problem
formulation (3 points)
Examples of 4 persuasive techniques (1 point each)
Three facts listed & one checked (4 points)
Questions stated at end (2 point)
Writing quality (3 points)
Helpful book on persuasion (recommended; one copy on reserve):
Jacobs, D. T. (1994). The bum's rush: The selling of environmental
backlash. Boise, ID: Legendary.
Other helpful books in WWU library's collection:
Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence: How and why people agree to
things. New York: William Morrow.
Cialdini, R. B. (1985). Influence: Science and Practice. New York: Quill.
DeLuca, Kevin Michael. (1999). Image politics: The new rhetoric of environmental activism. New York : Guilford Press.
Ehninger, D. (1974). Influence, belief, argument. Scott Foresman.
Flattau, E. (1998). Tracking the charlatans: An environmental columnist's refutational handbook for the propaganda wars.
Myerson, George, Yvonne Rydin. 1996. The language of environment: A new rhetoric. London: UCL Press.
Pratkanis, A. (1992). Age of propaganda.
Stauber, J.C. & Rampton, S. (1995). Toxic sludge is good for you: Lies, damn lies and the public relations industry. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Pr.
Wilkinson, T. (1998). Science under siege: The politician's war on nature and truth.
Writing & technicalities: See the general instructions.